Zinc

What it is

Zinc is an essential trace mineral obtained from food and sold as supplements in several salts, including gluconate, acetate, sulfate and oxide, as tablets, lozenges, syrups, nasal sprays and gels. It is needed across many tissues, and the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements notes that deficiency affects skin, bones and the digestive, reproductive, central nervous and immune systems. Established intake values for adults are 8 to 12 mg per day depending on sex and life stage, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 40 mg per day.

What the research says

There are two separate stories here. Where zinc deficiency is common, correcting it does real measurable good: in children with diarrhoea, zinc plus oral rehydration salts shortens episodes and, on more limited evidence, appears to reduce hospital admissions and deaths, which is why WHO and UNICEF have recommended it since 2004. In well-nourished people taking zinc for colds, the evidence is much thinner. A 2024 Cochrane review found zinc may make little to no difference to catching a cold at all; for people who already have one it may shorten symptoms by around two days, but the reviewers had little confidence in that. Zinc also lowered progression to advanced macular degeneration in the AREDS trial in people already at high risk. The harms are concrete: taste disturbance and stomach upset are common, doses of 50 mg or more for weeks interfere with copper absorption and have caused anaemia and neurological damage, and zinc applied inside the nose has caused lasting loss of smell.

Evidence grade: Disputed.

What goes wrong

Side effects, mainly taste disturbance and stomach upset, were reported more often with zinc than placebo when used as cold treatment. (Source 1)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: Within the 34-study Cochrane review (8,526 participants across the review)
• Who: Adults and children treated for the common cold.
• How long: Days to weeks.
• Result: Higher frequency of non-serious adverse events with zinc; intranasal zinc studies reported no anosmia cases but the reviewers rated that information uncertain.
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

Negative side effects were reported more frequently for those taking zinc as a cold treatment when compared to those taking placebo; irregularities in taste and stomach upset were the most common.

One Cochrane review of zinc for childhood diarrhoea (Lazzerini and Ronfani), as summarised by WHO, found vomiting more often in children given zinc; the only other possible side effect it recorded, reduced copper absorption, has not been shown after a short course. The WHO authors suggest the vomiting rate may depend on the quality of the zinc product. (Source 2)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: 24 studies in the Lazzerini and Ronfani Cochrane review, as summarised by WHO.
• Who: Children treated with zinc for diarrhoea.
• How long: 10-14 days.
• Result: Vomiting risk ratio printed as 1.71 (95% CI 1.27 to 1.99), with significant heterogeneity between studies; decreased copper absorption not shown to follow a short course of zinc.
• Funding: independent (WHO)

Limit of this finding: The WHO page prints the vomiting risk ratio as 1.71 with a 95% confidence interval of 1.27 to 1.99. For a risk ratio, the point estimate should sit in the middle of its interval on a multiplicative scale; the middle of 1.27 to 1.99 is about 1.59, not 1.71, so one of the printed numbers is probably a transcription error on the WHO page. What a reader can safely take from this: zinc-treated children vomited more often than children given placebo, with the interval suggesting roughly 1.3 to 2 times as often. Do not rely on the exact figure of 1.71. Also note that 'only two recorded possible side effects' describes what one review found, not a general guarantee about zinc safety, and 'Rofani' is the WHO page's own misspelling of Ronfani.

Lazzerini & Rofani found the only two recorded possible side effects to be vomiting and decreased copper absorption. While vomiting is reported more often in zinc supplemented children (Risk Ratio [RR] 1.71; 95% CI: 1.27, 1.99), significant heterogeneity among studies does exist supporting the theory that the rates of vomiting may vary depending on the quality of the zinc supplement provided to the children and is thus not an adverse reaction expected from all products.

Sustained zinc intake of 50 mg a day or more interferes with copper absorption, lowers immune function and lowers HDL cholesterol. (Source 3)

• Official position, Certainty not rated.
• Size: Not applicable - agency review of the literature.
• Who: People taking zinc supplements or using zinc-containing denture adhesive creams.
• How long: Weeks or longer.
• Result: Copper depletion, reduced immune function and lower HDL; very high supplemental doses (142 mg/day) may also disturb magnesium balance.
• Funding: independent (US government agency)

If used for weeks, doses of 50 mg zinc or more—typically from supplements or excessive use of denture adhesive creams that contain zinc—can interfere with copper absorption (which can cause low copper status), reduce immune function, and lower HDL cholesterol levels.

Excess zinc from products has caused neurological damage including sensory ataxia and myelopathy, alongside anaemia. (Source 3)

• Case series, Very low certainty.
• Size: A few reports, as summarised by the agency.
• Who: People overusing zinc-containing denture adhesive creams.
• How long: Prolonged use.
• Result: Neurological symptoms including sensory ataxia and myelopathy, plus anaemia; creams contained up to 34 mg zinc per gram.
• Funding: independent (US government agency)

According to a few reports, overuse of denture adhesive creams that contain up to 34 mg zinc per gram of product can lead to neurological symptoms (including sensory ataxia and myelopathy) and anemia.

A 74-year-old woman taking an over-the-counter eye supplement containing 40 mg zinc twice daily developed copper deficiency with sideroblastic anaemia and neutropenia, which resolved after stopping it. (Source 4)

• Case report, Very low certainty.
• Size: 1 patient.
• Who: Previously healthy 74-year-old woman taking a zinc-containing AMD supplement on ophthalmology advice.
• How long: Presented after two weeks of progressive fatigue; recovery over about four weeks after stopping zinc.
• Result: Haemoglobin 5.7-6.1 g/dL, white cell count 1.94 x 10^3/uL with absolute neutrophil count 900/uL, ceruloplasmin <3 mg/dL, low copper and raised zinc, 15% ringed sideroblasts on marrow; haemoglobin recovered to 11.4 g/dL and neutrophils to 5,960 K/uL after stopping the supplement and starting 2 mg copper daily.
• Funding: not stated.

Zinc-induced copper deficiency can present as sideroblastic anemia and neutropenia.

The product responsible in that case was a standard retail eye-health supplement providing 40 mg zinc per tablet taken twice a day. (Source 5)

• Case report, Very low certainty.
• Size: 1 patient.
• Who: 74-year-old woman with stage IV chronic kidney disease among other conditions.
• How long: Duration of use not specified in the report; recovery within about four weeks of stopping.
• Result: Copper, ceruloplasmin and zinc normalised and blood counts recovered after discontinuation plus 2 mg oral copper daily.
• Funding: not stated.

she had been taking the over-the-counter oral medication PreserVision twice daily, which contained 40 mg of zinc and 1 mg of copper

Zinc applied inside the nose has caused severe, sometimes permanent, loss of smell. (Source 6)

• Case series, Very low certainty.
• Size: One detailed case plus a series of patients (case numbers not given in the abstract)
• Who: People who used intranasal zinc gluconate for colds.
• How long: Onset after use; follow-up showed persistence.
• Result: Severe hyposmia or anosmia, long lasting or permanent in some cases; proposed mechanism is direct toxicity of the divalent zinc ion to the olfactory receptor cell.
• Funding: not stated.

Severe posttreatment hyposmia and anosmia have been observed.

The authors of that series concluded zinc ions are toxic to the olfactory epithelium. (Source 7)

• Case series, Very low certainty.
• Size: A case report plus a series.
• Who: Users of intranasal zinc gluconate.
• How long: Some losses long lasting or permanent.
• Result: Reports of severe hyposmia with parosmia or anosmia after intranasal zinc gluconate.
• Funding: not stated.

Zinc ions are toxic to olfactory epithelium. Reports of severe hyposmia with parosmia or anosmia have occurred after intranasal use of zinc gluconate.

What the evidence supports

In a meta-analysis of high-dose zinc lozenge trials, cold duration was about a third shorter, with no evidence that doses above 100 mg/day work better. (Source 8)

• Meta-analysis, Low certainty.
• Size: 7 randomised trials, 575 participants.
• Who: People with naturally acquired common colds.
• How long: Until cold resolution.
• Result: Mean cold duration 33% shorter (95% CI 21% to 45%); zinc acetate 40% vs zinc gluconate 28%, difference not significant (12 percentage points, 95% CI −12 to +36); 80-92 mg/day gave 33% and 192-207 mg/day gave 35%, difference not significant.
• Funding: not stated.

The mean common cold duration was 33% (95% CI 21% to 45%) shorter for the zinc groups of the seven included trials.

WHO and UNICEF have recommended zinc alongside oral rehydration salts for all childhood diarrhoea episodes since 2004, based on randomised placebo-controlled trials. (Source 9)

• Official position, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 89 Chinese and 15 non-Chinese studies in one review; 24 studies in the Cochrane review.
• Who: Children with acute diarrhoea, mainly in low- and middle-income countries.
• How long: 10-14 days of zinc per episode.
• Result: Cochrane review (Lazzerini and Ronfani) found diarrhoea duration reduced by 12.6 hours (95% CI 4.2 to 21 hours) across all ages, and a risk ratio of 0.82 (95% CI 0.72 to 0.94) for episodes lasting beyond seven days; the WHO commentary authors' own review found an overall relative reduction in all-cause mortality of 46% (95% CI 12% to 68%) from four studies with fewer than 50 deaths in total, and a 23% (95% CI 15% to 31%) reduction in diarrhoea hospitalisations from two community programmes.
• Funding: independent (WHO)

since 2004, zinc has been recommended by WHO and UNICEF as the only treatment to be coupled with oral rehydration salts for the treatment of all diarrhoea episodes

In the AREDS trial, antioxidants plus zinc reduced progression to advanced age-related macular degeneration, with zinc alone significant only in the higher-risk subgroup. (Source 10)

• Randomized trial, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 3,640 participants aged 55-80.
• Who: People with varying severity of age-related macular degeneration at 11 centres.
• How long: Average 6.3 years of follow-up.
• Result: Advanced AMD with antioxidants plus zinc OR 0.72 (99% CI 0.52-0.98); zinc alone OR 0.75 (99% CI 0.55-1.03) and antioxidants alone OR 0.80 (99% CI 0.59-1.09), neither significant overall; excluding 1,063 lower-risk participants, zinc alone OR 0.71 (99% CI 0.52-0.99); daily dose was 80 mg zinc as zinc oxide with 2 mg copper as cupric oxide.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract (National Eye Institute sponsored trial)

The ORs for zinc alone and antioxidants alone are 0.75 (99% CI, 0.55-1.03) and 0.80 (99% CI, 0.59-1.09), respectively.

AREDS reported no statistically significant serious adverse effect from any formulation over 6.3 years. (Source 10)

• Randomized trial, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 3,640 participants.
• Who: Adults aged 55-80 with AMD risk features.
• How long: Average 6.3 years.
• Result: No statistically significant serious adverse effect attributable to any arm.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

No statistically significant serious adverse effect was associated with any of the formulations.

Zinc deficiency produces recognisable clinical signs that vary with age, including diarrhoea in infants and children and impaired taste and smell. (Source 11)

• Official position, Certainty not rated.
• Size: Not applicable.
• Who: People with inadequate zinc intake or absorption.
• How long: Not applicable.
• Result: Diarrhoea in infants and children; alopecia, delayed growth and frequent infections in older children; impaired wound healing and cognitive and psychological changes in older adults.
• Funding: independent (US government agency)

The manifestations of zinc deficiency vary by age. In infants and children, diarrhea is a common sign.

What the evidence does not support

Taking zinc to prevent colds made little or no difference to whether people caught one. (Source 12)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: 9 studies, 1,449 people (prevention of incidence), within a review of 34 studies.
• Who: Adults and children in 13 countries, most trials in the USA.
• How long: Minimum treatment period five days, maximum 540 days.
• Result: Little to no difference in preventing a cold; preventative zinc also probably made little to no difference to cold length (3 studies, 740 participants) or symptom severity (2 studies, 101 people)
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

Compared with placebo, taking zinc may make little to no difference in preventing people from catching a cold (9 studies, 1449 people).

Where the evidence is mixed

Zinc taken once a cold has started may shorten symptoms by about two days, but the reviewers had little confidence in that result. (Source 1)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: 8 studies, 972 people (duration); 2 studies, 261 people (severity)
• Who: Adults and children with the common cold.
• How long: Treatment usually until self-reported resolution of symptoms.
• Result: Approximately two days shorter symptom duration versus placebo; severity effect unclear.
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

Zinc taken for treatment of a cold may reduce the length of time that symptoms are present, by approximately two days, when compared with placebo (8 studies, 972 people). However, we have little confidence in the evidence supporting this conclusion.

Most of the zinc cold trials were funded by parties with commercial ties or did not state their funding at all. (Source 13)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: 34 studies.
• Who: Trials in adults (22 studies) and children under 18 (12 studies)
• How long: Five to 540 days.
• Result: Funding source is a quality concern flagged by the reviewers themselves.
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

Most of the studies were funded by an organisation with ties to related commerce/industry or did not report their funding.

The Cochrane reviewers rated their own conclusions about zinc and colds as low to very low certainty. (Source 14)

• Systematic review, Very low certainty.
• Size: 34 trials, 8,526 participants.
• Who: Adults and children.
• How long: Varied.
• Result: Certainty downgraded for unclear randomisation, widely differing delivery methods and heterogeneity.
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

They noted that all of these conclusions were based on low to very low certainty of evidence.

The benefit of zinc for childhood diarrhoea is not uniform - the Lazzerini and Ronfani review found no effect in infants under six months; the other review summarised by WHO (Lamberti et al.) did not look at age separately. (Source 15)

• Systematic review, Low certainty.
• Size: 24 studies in the Lazzerini and Ronfani review.
• Who: Children with diarrhoea, analysed by age band.
• How long: Per diarrhoea episode.
• Result: Statistically significant effect in older children, no effect among infants less than six months of age.
• Funding: independent (WHO summary)

Lazzerini and Ronfani found great heterogeneity by age with a statistically significant effect in older children and no effect among infants less than six months of age when looking solely at this age group; Lamberti et al. did not stratify by age.

The 2024 Cochrane review found no cases of anosmia reported in the intranasal zinc trials it included, though it rated that information uncertain. (Source 1)

• Systematic review, Very low certainty.
• Size: Within 34 trials, 8,526 participants.
• Who: Trial participants given intranasal zinc.
• How long: Varied.
• Result: No anosmia cases reported in trials, in contrast to the clinical case literature; the reviewers state specific side effect information is uncertain.
• Funding: industry-funded or not stated for most trials.

Studies administering intranasal zinc did not report any cases of anosmia (loss of sense of smell) but information about specific side effects is uncertain.

Where the research disagrees

How much zinc lozenges actually shorten a cold, and how confident anyone should be

• Cochrane review authors (Nault and colleagues, 2024), Systematic review of 34 trials, 8,526 participants, low to very low certainty: Zinc taken for treatment of a cold may reduce the length of time that symptoms are present, by approximately two days, when compared with placebo (8 studies, 972 people). However, we have little confidence in the evidence supporting this conclusion. (Source 1)
• Hemila (2017) meta-analysis, Meta-analysis restricted to seven placebo-controlled lozenge trials using more than 75 mg zinc per day, 575 participants: The mean common cold duration was 33% (95% CI 21% to 45%) shorter for the zinc groups of the seven included trials. (Source 8)

Whether intranasal zinc causes loss of smell

• Jafek, Linschoten and Murrow (2004), otolaryngology case series, Detailed case report plus a clinical case series of patients presenting with smell loss: Zinc ions are toxic to olfactory epithelium. Reports of severe hyposmia with parosmia or anosmia have occurred after intranasal use of zinc gluconate. (Source 7)
• Cochrane review authors (2024), Systematic review of randomised trials, which are generally too small and short to detect rare harms: Studies administering intranasal zinc did not report any cases of anosmia (loss of sense of smell) but information about specific side effects is uncertain. (Source 1)

How much

• Reference intake: US Food and Nutrition Board, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (as published by the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements): RDAs and AIs for zinc range from 8 to 12 mg for adults and from 2 to 13 mg for infants, children and adolescents, depending on age, sex and life stage. The fact sheet's table gives 11 mg for men aged 19+, 8 mg for women aged 19+, 11 mg in pregnancy and 12 mg in lactation. (Source 16)
• Upper limit: US Food and Nutrition Board: the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for zinc is 40 mg per day for adults, ranging from 4 to 34 mg for infants, children and adolescents depending on age. It is set on the basis of the zinc levels that have an adverse effect on copper status. (Source 17)
• Studied: Zinc lozenge trials pooled by Hemila: five trials used 80-92 mg zinc per day and two used 192-207 mg per day, as zinc acetate or zinc gluconate lozenges, for the duration of a cold. (Source 8)
• Studied: AREDS gave 80 mg zinc daily as zinc oxide with 2 mg copper as cupric oxide, over an average 6.3 years. (Source 10)
• Studied: The two reviews summarised by WHO (Lamberti et al.; Lazzerini and Ronfani) included only randomised placebo-controlled trials giving at least 5 mg zinc per day; the WHO/UNICEF treatment course is 10-14 days per episode, in children. (Source 9)

A common belief, and what the research shows

The belief: Taking zinc regularly stops you getting colds, and more zinc means fewer colds.

What the research shows: Prevention is where the evidence is weakest. The 2024 Cochrane review reported that "Compared with placebo, taking zinc may make little to no difference in preventing people from catching a cold (9 studies, 1449 people)." Treatment once a cold has begun may shorten it, but the same reviewers wrote "However, we have little confidence in the evidence supporting this conclusion." Nor does more help: in pooled lozenge trials "There is no evidence that zinc doses over 100 mg/day might lead to greater efficacy in the treatment of the common cold." And sustained high intake carries a real cost, because "If used for weeks, doses of 50 mg zinc or more—typically from supplements or excessive use of denture adhesive creams that contain zinc—can interfere with copper absorption (which can cause low copper status), reduce immune function, and lower HDL cholesterol levels."

Questions and answers

What is it?

Zinc is an essential trace mineral. The body loses some every day and cannot make it, so it has to come from food daily. (Source 18)

What does it do in the body?

Zinc is built into a very large number of proteins. Computer (in silico) analyses estimate that about 10% of all human proteins can potentially bind zinc. The review this comes from is about zinc's role in immune function. (Source 19)

Is it good or bad for you?

Zinc is essential, but supplements help mainly where deficiency is common. A 2023 Cochrane review of children aged 6 months to 12 years, mostly in low- and middle-income countries, found that preventive zinc might reduce diarrhoea and slightly improve growth. The same review found little or no effect on deaths. Too much zinc is harmful (see getRidOf). (Source 20)

How do you get more of it?

Through diet, fortified foods or supplements. A 2013 meta-analysis found that vegetarians had lower zinc intake and blood levels. Its authors named three possible ways to raise zinc status in vegetarians with low levels: eating practices that improve absorption, zinc-fortified foods, and low-dose supplements. (Source 21)

If it is harmful, what reduces it?

Excess zinc, from high-dose supplements or zinc-containing denture adhesive, can cause copper deficiency. In a 2025 case report of a 68-year-old man who used both, doctors stopped the zinc sources and gave copper. His low white-cell count (neutropenia), fatigue, weakness and low copper resolved within three weeks. This is a single case. (Source 22)

Why might someone be low in it or missing it?

Usually because the diet delivers zinc in a form that is hard to absorb, and sometimes because there is not enough food. A 2020 review lists vegans, vegetarians and older people as more at risk. So are people with conditions that reduce zinc absorption, such as coeliac disease or the inherited disorder acrodermatitis enteropathica, and people with diseases that increase zinc loss, such as inflammatory bowel disease. (Source 23)

Which whole foods contain it or feed it?

A 2024 analysis of foods sold in Guangzhou, China, found animal foods higher in zinc than plant foods. Among animal foods, oysters and high-zinc milk powder had the most, followed by meat and eggs, then fish and dairy. Among plant foods, pulses (soybeans, peanuts, mung beans) had the most, followed by rice, and fruit and vegetables had the least. (Source 24)

What happens if you do not have it?

In humans, zinc deficiency causes weight loss, poor growth, atrophy (the review does not say of which tissue) and weakened immune function, along with more oxidative stress and a stronger inflammatory response. (Source 25)

How can you test for it?

The usual test is plasma zinc in a blood sample, but it is imprecise. An expert panel found it changes with the last meal, the time of day, inflammation, and some drugs and hormones, and it differs a lot between people. The panel found too little evidence to recommend hair, urine, nail or blood-cell zinc tests. (Source 26)

References

1. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (cochrane.org). Zinc for the prevention and treatment of the common cold (plain language summary). 2024. PMID 38719213, DOI 10.1002/14651858.CD014914.pub2. Read the source
2. World Health Organization, e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA); commentary by Christa L. Fischer Walker and Robert E. Black, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, March 2014. Zinc supplementation in the management of diarrhoea - Biological, behavioural and contextual rationale. 2014. Read the source
3. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet. 2026. Read the source
4. Cureus. Zinc-Containing Over-The-Counter Product Causing Sideroblastic Anemia and Neutropenia. 2024. DOI 10.7759/cureus.59796. Read the source
5. Cureus. Zinc-Containing Over-The-Counter Product Causing Sideroblastic Anemia and Neutropenia. 2024. DOI 10.7759/cureus.59796. Read the source
6. American Journal of Rhinology. Anosmia after Intranasal Zinc Gluconate Use. 2004. PMID 15283486, DOI 10.1177/194589240401800302. Read the source
7. American Journal of Rhinology. Anosmia after Intranasal Zinc Gluconate Use. 2004. PMID 15283486, DOI 10.1177/194589240401800302. Read the source
8. JRSM Open. Zinc lozenges and the common cold: a meta-analysis comparing zinc acetate and zinc gluconate, and the role of zinc dosage. 2017. PMID 28515951, DOI 10.1177/2054270417694291. Read the source
9. World Health Organization, e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA); commentary by Christa L. Fischer Walker and Robert E. Black, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, March 2014. Zinc supplementation in the management of diarrhoea - Biological, behavioural and contextual rationale. 2014. Read the source
10. Archives of Ophthalmology (JAMA Network). A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Clinical Trial of High-Dose Supplementation With Vitamins C and E, Beta Carotene, and Zinc for Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Vision Loss: AREDS Report No. 8. 2001. PMID 11594942, DOI 10.1001/archopht.119.10.1417. Read the source
11. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet. 2026. Read the source
12. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (cochrane.org). Zinc for the prevention and treatment of the common cold (plain language summary). 2024. PMID 38719213, DOI 10.1002/14651858.CD014914.pub2. Read the source
13. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (cochrane.org). Zinc for the prevention and treatment of the common cold (plain language summary). 2024. PMID 38719213, DOI 10.1002/14651858.CD014914.pub2. Read the source
14. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet. 2026. Read the source
15. World Health Organization, e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA); commentary by Christa L. Fischer Walker and Robert E. Black, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, March 2014. Zinc supplementation in the management of diarrhoea - Biological, behavioural and contextual rationale. 2014. Read the source
16. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet. 2026. Read the source
17. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Zinc - Health Professional Fact Sheet. 2026. Read the source
18. Nutrients. A Guide to Human Zinc Absorption: General Overview and Recent Advances of In Vitro Intestinal Models (Maares M, Haase H). 2020. PMID 32183116, DOI 10.3390/nu12030762. Read the source
19. Nutrients. Zinc as a Gatekeeper of Immune Function (Wessels I, Maywald M, Rink L). 2017. DOI 10.3390/nu9121286. Read the source
20. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Zinc supplementation for preventing mortality, morbidity, and growth failure in children aged 6 months to 12 years (Imdad A et al.). 2023. DOI 10.1002/14651858.CD009384.pub3. Read the source
21. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in humans (Foster M, Chu A, Petocz P, Samman S). 2013. DOI 10.1002/jsfa.6179. Read the source
22. Cureus. A Hematologic Twist: Zinc-Induced Copper Deficiency Mimicking Myelodysplastic Syndrome (Mims MH, Reid ES, Hash MG, Maddux A). 2025. DOI 10.7759/cureus.87624. Read the source
23. Nutrients. A Guide to Human Zinc Absorption: General Overview and Recent Advances of In Vitro Intestinal Models (Maares M, Haase H). 2020. PMID 32183116, DOI 10.3390/nu12030762. Read the source
24. Frontiers in Nutrition. Zinc contents in foods and estimates of dietary intakes in Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China (Mai W et al.). 2024. DOI 10.3389/fnut.2024.1364033. Read the source
25. Nutrients. Zinc as a Gatekeeper of Immune Function (Wessels I, Maywald M, Rink L). 2017. DOI 10.3390/nu9121286. Read the source
26. Journal of Nutrition. Biomarkers of Nutrition for Development (BOND)—Zinc Review (King JC et al.). 2016. PMID 26962190, DOI 10.3945/jn.115.220079. Read the source