Diazepam

What it is

Diazepam is a long-acting 1,4-benzodiazepine taken by mouth as a tablet, and also made as an injection, a rectal gel and a nasal spray. The US label describes it as a benzodiazepine with anxiolytic, sedative, muscle-relaxant, anticonvulsant and amnestic effects. It is broken down in the liver by the enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 into long-lived active metabolites, chiefly N-desmethyldiazepam, so it accumulates with repeated dosing, especially in older people. In the United States it is a controlled substance.

What the research says

The evidence is strongest and shortest-term. Randomised trials show benzodiazepines as a class beat placebo for generalised anxiety disorder symptoms, and in alcohol withdrawal a Cochrane review found they reduce seizures. For acute low back pain a randomised trial found adding diazepam to naproxen was no better than adding placebo. Against that, the drug carries a boxed warning covering opioid co-prescription, abuse, dependence and withdrawal; the label states its effectiveness beyond four months has not been assessed in systematic studies; and observational data link benzodiazepines to falls and hip fracture in older people and to a raised rate of opioid-overdose admissions. The dementia association is contested and the best-designed cohort does not support cause.

Evidence grade: Well established.

How it works

Drug class: Benzodiazepine (long-acting 1,4-benzodiazepine; GABA-A positive allosteric modulator)

Diazepam attaches to a site on the GABA-A receptor, the main 'brake' receptor in the brain, and makes the brain's own inhibitory chemical GABA work harder. The result is sedation, reduced anxiety, muscle relaxation, suppression of seizures and impaired memory for new events. (Source 1)

Boxed warning

WARNING: RISKS FROM CONCOMITANT USE WITH OPIOIDS; ABUSE, MISUSE, AND ADDICTION; and DEPENDENCE AND WITHDRAWAL REACTIONS

(Source 2)

What it is used for

• A 2025 network meta-analysis of 56 randomised trials in generalised anxiety disorder found benzodiazepines as a class better than placebo, with no clear differences between individual benzodiazepines, but high heterogeneity and inconsistency and certainty ranging from high to very low. The label itself says effectiveness beyond four months has not been assessed in systematic studies. Evidence: established. (Source 3)
• A Cochrane review of 64 trials in 4,309 participants found benzodiazepines reduced withdrawal seizures compared with placebo (RR 0.16, 0.04 to 0.69, from 3 studies with 324 participants), with no statistically significant difference for the other outcomes measured. Evidence: established. (Source 4)
• This is an approved use on the label, which lists reflex spasm, spasticity from upper motor neuron disorders, athetosis and stiff-man syndrome. We did not find a systematic review of diazepam for these conditions in the searches we ran; the strongest randomised evidence we did find, in acute low back pain, was negative. Evidence: limited. (Source 5)
• The label approves oral diazepam only as an add-on and states it has not proved useful as sole therapy. It also warns that abrupt withdrawal in people taking it for seizures may be followed by a temporary rise in seizure frequency or severity. Evidence: limited. (Source 5)
• In a randomised, double-blind emergency-department trial of 114 patients, adding diazepam 5 mg to naproxen produced the same one-week improvement in function as adding placebo (Roland-Morris improvement 11 in both arms) and no better pain outcomes at one week or three months. Evidence: not-supported. (Source 6)

Interactions

• Opioids (label): Together they can cause deep sedation, slowed breathing, coma and death; this is the first bullet of the boxed warning, and a large claims analysis found about double the odds of an overdose admission. (Source 2)
• Alcohol (clinical trial): Alcohol adds to the sedation. In a double-blind crossover study in nine healthy volunteers, psychomotor impairment after alcohol was greater on diazepam than on placebo. (Source 7)
• Alcohol (label position) (label): The label advises against drinking alcohol while taking diazepam because the sedative effect is enhanced. (Source 8)
• Grapefruit juice (pharmacokinetic study): Grapefruit juice inhibits CYP3A4 in the gut and liver. In eight healthy volunteers given a single 5 mg dose, grapefruit juice tripled total diazepam exposure. (Source 9)
• Food (a moderate fat meal) (pharmacokinetic study): Taking diazepam with food slows and reduces absorption, lowering the peak level and total exposure. (Source 1)
• Antacids (pharmacokinetic study): Antacids slow absorption and lower the peak concentration, but the label says the total amount absorbed is unchanged and the difference was not statistically significant. (Source 10)
• CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 inhibitors (cimetidine, ketoconazole, fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, omeprazole) (label): These slow the breakdown of diazepam and can lead to higher levels and longer-lasting sedation. (Source 10)
• Other centrally acting sedating drugs (label): Antipsychotics, other sedatives and hypnotics, anticonvulsants, opioid analgesics, anaesthetics, sedating antihistamines, barbiturates, MAO inhibitors and other antidepressants can each add to diazepam's effects. (Source 8)

Stopping it

• The label's own instruction is a gradual, patient-specific taper rather than an abrupt stop, with the taper paused or stepped back if withdrawal reactions appear. (Source 11)
• Risk of withdrawal reactions rises with higher doses and longer use, so the people who have taken it longest are the ones for whom a slow taper matters most. (Source 12)
• Acute withdrawal can include rebound insomnia and anxiety alongside physical symptoms, and in severe cases seizures, delirium tremens, psychosis and suicidality. (Source 13)
• Stopping is achievable: in the EMPOWER cluster randomised trial, sending long-term older users a plain-language leaflet with a stepwise tapering protocol got 27% off the drug at six months versus 5% with usual care. (Source 14)
• In people taking diazepam as an add-on for seizures, abrupt withdrawal may be followed by a temporary increase in seizure frequency or severity. (Source 15)

What goes wrong

Taking a benzodiazepine alongside a prescription opioid roughly doubled the odds of an emergency visit or admission for opioid overdose. (Source 16)

• Cohort study, Low certainty.
• Size: 315,428 privately insured people aged 18-64 who filled at least one opioid prescription.
• Who: US privately insured adults, claims data 2001-13.
• How long: 13 years of claims.
• Result: Adjusted odds ratio 2.14 (95% CI 2.05 to 2.24; P<0.001) for all opioid users; 1.42 (1.33 to 1.51) intermittent and 1.81 (1.67 to 1.96) chronic opioid users.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

Limit of this finding: One figure in this paper does not match its own arithmetic: it says benzodiazepine use among opioid users rose from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013 and calls that an "80% relative increase", when a rise from 9% to 17% is an increase of about 89%. The slip is in how the trend was described and does not touch the overdose estimates, which are internally consistent. Separately, this is an analysis of insurance claims, so the odds ratios show an association between taking both drugs and overdose; they cannot on their own show that the combination caused the overdoses.

Compared with opioid users who did not use benzodiazepines, concurrent use of both drugs was associated with an increased risk of an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose (adjusted odds ratio 2.14, 95% confidence interval 2.05 to 2.24; P<0.001) among all opioid users.

In a case-control study of older adults, a benzodiazepine prescription in the previous month was associated with a higher probability of a fall with hip fracture. (Source 17)

• Case-control study, Low certainty.
• Size: 287 hip fracture cases and 574 controls.
• Who: People older than 65 in Colombia; 72.1% female, mean age 82.4 years.
• How long: Drugs dispensed in the previous 30 days.
• Result: Adjusted OR for benzodiazepines 3.73 (95% CI 1.60-8.70); for opioids 4.49 (95% CI 2.72-7.42)
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

Limit of this finding: This is a case-control study of people over 65 in Colombia, and only 4.2% of them had taken a benzodiazepine in the month before the fracture. That small number is why the interval is so wide: the odds ratio of 3.73 is compatible with anything from 1.60 to 8.70. It shows an association in one population over one month and, being a case-control design, cannot on its own show the drug caused the fractures. A screen that quoted "3.73 times" without the interval would overstate it.

The adjusted multivariate analysis found that using opioids (OR:4.49; 95%CI:2.72-7.42) and benzodiazepines (OR:3.73; 95%CI:1.60-8.70) in the month prior to the event was significantly associated with a greater probability of suffering a fall with hip fracture.

Abrupt stopping or rapid dose reduction after continued use can precipitate withdrawal reactions that include seizures and can be life-threatening. (Source 18)

• Official position, Certainty not rated.
• Size: Not applicable: regulator-approved labelling.
• Who: People taking diazepam tablets continuously.
• How long: Risk rises with longer duration and higher daily dose.
• Result: No rate given; the label lists seizures, delirium tremens, catatonia, mania, psychosis and suicidality among severe acute withdrawal reactions.
• Funding: not applicable.

Abrupt discontinuation or rapid dosage reduction of benzodiazepines or administration of flumazenil, a benzodiazepine antagonist, may precipitate acute withdrawal reactions, including seizures, which can be life-threatening.

Withdrawal symptoms reported with benzodiazepines include panic attacks, hypertension and tachycardia, and a protracted syndrome lasting weeks to more than 12 months. (Source 19)

• Official position, Certainty not rated.
• Size: Not applicable: regulator-approved labelling.
• Who: People discontinuing benzodiazepines.
• How long: Protracted symptoms persist beyond 4 to 6 weeks and may last weeks to more than 12 months.
• Result: No rate given.
• Funding: not applicable.

Protracted withdrawal syndrome associated with benzodiazepines is characterized by anxiety, cognitive impairment, depression, insomnia, formication, motor symptoms (e.g., weakness, tremor, muscle twitches), paresthesia, and tinnitus that persists beyond 4 to 6 weeks after initial benzodiazepine withdrawal.

Falls and fractures have been reported in benzodiazepine users in postmarketing surveillance, with higher risk alongside other sedatives including alcohol and in older people. (Source 20)

• Case series, Very low certainty.
• Size: Spontaneous postmarketing reports; no denominator.
• Who: Benzodiazepine users.
• How long: Not stated.
• Result: No rate given.
• Funding: not applicable.

There have been reports of falls and fractures in benzodiazepine users. The risk is increased in those taking concomitant sedatives (including alcohol), and in the elderly.

The most commonly reported side effects are sedative and motor: drowsiness, fatigue, muscle weakness and ataxia, with paradoxical reactions more likely in children and older people. (Source 21)

• Official position, Certainty not rated.
• Size: Not applicable: regulator-approved labelling.
• Who: People taking diazepam tablets.
• How long: Not stated.
• Result: No frequencies given in the label.
• Funding: not applicable.

Side effects most commonly reported were drowsiness, fatigue, muscle weakness, and ataxia.

What the evidence supports

Benzodiazepines as a class outperformed placebo on generalised anxiety disorder symptoms, with no clear separation between individual drugs, high heterogeneity and inconsistency, and certainty ratings that the review reports as running from high down to very low. (Source 3)

• Meta-analysis, Low certainty.
• Size: 56 studies, 7,556 participants.
• Who: Adults aged 18 and over with generalised anxiety disorder.
• How long: Not stated in the abstract; trials in GAD are typically weeks.
• Result: All benzodiazepines significantly better than placebo for efficacy; for tolerability only diazepam differed from placebo (RR = 1.61; 95% CI = 1.32; 1.96)
• Funding: not stated.

Limit of this finding: The published abstract contains an arithmetic impossibility: it says 40 comparisons scored "very low," 7 scored "low," and 814 scored "high" in a network built from only 56 studies. 814 high-certainty comparisons cannot come out of 56 studies, so this is a misprint in the journal. It is quoted exactly as printed and we are not guessing what was meant. Read the certainty of this review as mixed, running from high down to very low, and do not read "814 scored high" as meaning the evidence is overwhelmingly high-certainty.

Regarding efficacy, all BZDs, in general, were significantly better than placebo, but there were no significant differences between the different BZDs (high heterogeneity and inconsistency were detected).

In alcohol withdrawal, benzodiazepines reduced seizures compared with placebo, but did not separate from placebo on the other outcomes measured. (Source 4)

• Systematic review, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 64 studies, 4,309 participants (seizure outcome: 3 studies, 324 participants)
• Who: People in alcohol withdrawal, inpatient and outpatient, any age.
• How long: Short-term detoxification.
• Result: RR 0.16 (0.04 to 0.69) for seizures versus placebo.
• Funding: not stated.

Limit of this finding: The phrase "no statistically significant difference for the other outcomes considered" belongs only to the comparison of benzodiazepines against placebo. The review's comparisons of benzodiazepines against other drugs begin after the point where this quotation stops, so this sentence must not be read as a verdict on benzodiazepines in general.

Comparing benzodiazepines versus placebo, benzodiazepines performed better for seizures, 3 studies, 324 participants, RR 0.16 (0.04 to 0.69), no statistically significant difference for the other outcomes considered.

A direct-to-patient deprescribing intervention got about a quarter of long-term older benzodiazepine users off the drug within six months, with a number needed to treat of 4. (Source 14)

• Randomized trial, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 303 long-term benzodiazepine users aged 65-95 from 30 community pharmacies; 261 (86%) completed follow-up.
• Who: Community-dwelling older long-term benzodiazepine users in Canada.
• How long: 6 months.
• Result: 27% of the intervention group discontinued versus 5% of controls; risk difference 23% (95% CI 14%-32%); number needed to treat 4; a further 11% (95% CI 6%-16%) reduced dose.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

Limit of this finding: The arithmetic in this abstract does not quite close: 27% of the intervention group and 5% of the control group had stopped at six months, a gap of 22 percentage points, but the paper reports the risk difference as 23% (95% CI 14%-32%). The difference comes from rounding the two percentages, and the confidence interval and the number needed to treat of 4 are unaffected. Read the effect as roughly a 22 to 23 percentage point increase in the chance of stopping, not as an exact figure.

At 6 months, 27% of the intervention group had discontinued benzodiazepine use compared with 5% of the control group (risk difference, 23% [95% CI, 14%-32%]; intracluster correlation, 0.008; number needed to treat, 4).

What the evidence does not support

Adding diazepam to naproxen did not improve function or pain in acute low back pain compared with adding placebo. (Source 6)

• Randomized trial, Moderate certainty.
• Size: 114 randomised, 112 (98%) with one-week data.
• Who: Emergency-department patients with acute, non-traumatic, non-radicular low back pain of up to two weeks.
• How long: 1 week primary outcome; 3-month follow-up.
• Result: Roland-Morris score improved by 11 (95% CI 9 to 13) with diazepam and 11 (95% CI 8 to 13) with placebo; at one week 18/57 (32%) on diazepam versus 12/55 (22%) on placebo still had moderate or severe pain.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

The mean Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire score of patients randomized to naproxen+diazepam improved by 11 (95% confidence interval [CI] 9 to 13), as did the mean score of patients randomized to naproxen+placebo (11; 95% CI 8 to 13).

In the best-controlled prospective cohort, higher cumulative benzodiazepine exposure was not associated with faster cognitive decline, and the highest exposure category showed no raised dementia risk, which argues against cause. (Source 22)

• Cohort study, Low certainty.
• Size: 3,434 participants aged 65 and over.
• Who: Older adults without dementia at entry in an integrated healthcare system in Seattle.
• How long: Mean follow-up 7.3 years.
• Result: Adjusted hazard ratios 1.25 (1.03 to 1.51) for 1-30 TSDDs; 1.31 (1.00 to 1.71) for 31-120 TSDDs; 1.07 (0.82 to 1.39) for 121 or more TSDDs.
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

For dementia, the adjusted hazard ratios associated with cumulative benzodiazepine use compared with non-use were 1.25 (95% confidence interval 1.03 to 1.51) for 1-30 TSDDs; 1.31 (1.00 to 1.71) for 31-120 TSDDs; and 1.07 (0.82 to 1.39) for ≥ 121 TSDDs. Results were similar for Alzheimer's disease. Higher benzodiazepine use was not associated with more rapid cognitive decline.

Where the evidence is mixed

An earlier French prospective cohort found new benzodiazepine use associated with a higher rate of later dementia; this is an association in observational data, not evidence of cause. (Source 23)

• Cohort study, Low certainty.
• Size: 1,063 men and women, mean age 78.2 years; 253 incident dementia cases.
• Who: Community-dwelling older adults in the PAQUID study, France, free of dementia and not on benzodiazepines until at least year 3.
• How long: 15 years.
• Result: Multivariable adjusted hazard ratio 1.60 (95% CI 1.08 to 2.38); pooled HR across five new-user cohorts 1.46 (1.10 to 1.94)
• Funding: not stated in the abstract.

New use of benzodiazepines was associated with an increased risk of dementia (multivariable adjusted hazard ratio 1.60, 95% confidence interval 1.08 to 2.38).

Where the research disagrees

Whether benzodiazepine use causes dementia

• Billioti de Gage and colleagues, PAQUID cohort (BMJ 2012), cohort: New use of benzodiazepines was associated with an increased risk of dementia (multivariable adjusted hazard ratio 1.60, 95% confidence interval 1.08 to 2.38). (Source 23)
• Gray and colleagues, ACT cohort (BMJ 2016), cohort: The risk of dementia is slightly higher in people with minimal exposure to benzodiazepines but not with the highest level of exposure. These results do not support a causal association between benzodiazepine use and dementia. (Source 24)

How much

• Reference intake: There is no reference intake for a prescription medicine. The dose is set by the prescriber and individualised; the US label (Mylan diazepam tablets, SPL dated 4 April 2023) gives, as a position, 2 mg to 10 mg two to four times daily for anxiety, and 2 mg to 2.5 mg once or twice daily initially in older or debilitated patients. (Source 25)
• Upper limit: The label sets no numerical maximum daily dose, but states as a position that dosage should be individualised and increased only cautiously above the usual range, and that effectiveness beyond four months has not been assessed in systematic studies. (Source 5)
• Studied: In the emergency-department low back pain trial, participants were given 28 tablets of diazepam 5 mg, one or two every 12 hours as needed, alongside naproxen 500 mg twice daily. (Source 26)

A common belief, and what the research shows

The belief: Diazepam is a mild, safe tranquilliser you can take indefinitely and stop whenever you like.

What the research shows: Both halves are wrong. On duration, the label states plainly: "The effectiveness of diazepam tablets in long-term use, that is, more than 4 months, has not been assessed by systematic clinical studies." On stopping, abrupt cessation after continued use is itself dangerous: "Abrupt discontinuation or rapid dosage reduction of benzodiazepines or administration of flumazenil, a benzodiazepine antagonist, may precipitate acute withdrawal reactions, including seizures, which can be life-threatening."

Questions and answers

What is it?

Diazepam is a prescription benzodiazepine, sold originally as Valium. It is a long-acting member of the class, with active breakdown products that linger, so it builds up with repeated doses. It is used as a tablet for anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, muscle spasm and as an add-on in seizure disorders. (Source 1)

What does it do in the body?

It makes the brain's main inhibitory signal, GABA, more effective at the GABA-A receptor. That damps down nerve activity, which is why one drug produces calm, sleepiness, muscle relaxation, seizure suppression and gaps in memory for new information all at once. The same mechanism is why it adds to alcohol and opioids. (Source 1)

Is it good or bad for you?

Both, and which one depends almost entirely on duration and context. Short-term, randomised evidence supports it: benzodiazepines beat placebo in generalised anxiety disorder and cut seizures in alcohol withdrawal. Long-term the picture inverts. The label carries a boxed warning on opioid co-use, abuse, dependence and withdrawal, and says effectiveness past four months has not been systematically studied. Observational data link it to falls and hip fracture in older people. (Source 2)

How do you get more of it?

Diazepam is a prescription-only controlled substance; there is no food, supplement or behaviour that supplies it, and the only legitimate source is a prescription. One thing that raises the level of a given dose is grapefruit juice, which inhibits the enzyme that clears it: in eight volunteers, grapefruit juice tripled diazepam exposure from a single 5 mg dose. That is a drug-food interaction to be aware of, not a way to get more of the drug. (Source 9)

If it is harmful, what reduces it?

Not by stopping suddenly. Because the body physically adapts to continued use, an abrupt stop or a fast dose cut can trigger withdrawal that includes seizures and can be life-threatening. The evidence-based route is a gradual, individualised taper, paused or stepped back if withdrawal symptoms appear. A randomised trial showed this works in practice: a plain-language leaflet with a tapering protocol got 27% of long-term older users off benzodiazepines in six months against 5% on usual care, a number needed to treat of 4. (Source 14)

Why might someone be low in it or missing it?

This question is about nutrients the body needs. Diazepam is a manufactured drug, not something the body makes or requires, so nobody is 'deficient' in it. People stop having it in their system when a prescription ends or a taper finishes. What does change is how fast the body clears it: in older people diazepam and its long-lived metabolite accumulate, so the same dose produces a higher effective exposure. (Source 27)

Which whole foods contain it or feed it?

No whole food contains diazepam. Food does change how it is absorbed: taking it with a moderate fat meal delays and reduces absorption, cutting the peak concentration and the total exposure. Grapefruit juice works the other way, raising exposure threefold. Alcohol is the food-adjacent exposure that matters most, because it adds to the sedation. (Source 1)

What happens if you do not have it?

Nothing, if you have never taken it: it is not a nutrient. If you have been taking it continuously and it is suddenly absent, that is a different matter. Withdrawal can bring anxiety, insomnia, tremor, panic attacks, raised blood pressure and racing heart, and in severe cases seizures, delirium, psychosis and suicidality. Some people have a protracted syndrome lasting weeks to more than a year. (Source 13)

How can you test for it?

Diazepam can be measured in blood or urine, and it shows up on standard benzodiazepine immunoassay drug screens, but no routine blood level is used to guide ordinary treatment the way it is for lithium. The monitoring the label does call for in long-term use is periodic blood counts and liver function tests, because of isolated reports of neutropenia and jaundice, and renal function in older patients. (Source 20)

References

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